Char Bouba war

The Char Bouba war (variously transliterated as Sharr Bubba, Shar Buba), also known as the Mauritanian Thirty Years' War^[1] or the Marabout War,^[2] took place between 1644 and 1674 in the tribal areas of what is today Mauritania and Western Sahara as well as in the Senegal river valley.^[3] It was fought between the Sanhadja Berber tribes and Muslim populations in the river valley, led by Lamtuna Imam Nasr ad-Din, on one hand; and the Maqil Arab immigrant tribes, foremost of which was the Beni Hassan, as well as the traditional aristocracies of the Wolof states on the other, supported by the French.^[4][5]

The war was led by Sidi Ibrahim Al Aroussi, son of the famous Cheikh Sidi Ahmed Al Aroussi (died in 1593, near to Smara, in Western Sahara). Al Aroussi, with his two sons Shanan Al Aroussi and Sidi Tounsi Al Aroussi, led a powerful force of the Hassani tribe, the Aroussi Army, to conquer the Berber Imarat in current Mauritania and gain access to Bilad as-Sudan ("the Land of the Blacks", in Senegal and Mali).

The Sanhaja Berber tribal confederation had played a key role in the formation of the Almoravid dynasty, and as a result had experienced a period of strength and power throughout the Dynasty's existence. Following its defeat and disintegration the Sanhaja were left divided and weak. The more aggressive and warlike of the Sanhaja clans dominated the smaller and weaker groups, demanding tribute. Some of the weaker groups, having failed to preserve their independence, turned away from violence and instead devoted themselves to Islamic learning and piety. These groups became known as the Zawaya, or Maraboutic tribes. A relationship then formed between stronger warrior clans, who cared little for Islam, and the pious Zawaya. Arab nomads known as the Hassan later arrived in the south-western Saharan region in the 15th century and proceeded to dominate. A Moorish society then developed, consisting of the Hassan, the Zawaya, and the Lahma; client groups subservient to both the Hassan and the Zawaya.^[6]

Successive Hassani rulers exerted pressure on the Zawaya, demanding tribute. The tribute was ostensibly payment for protection, however the Hassan were often either incapable or unwilling to protect their clients, resulting in Zawaya commerce and agriculture being frequently disrupted by raids and general insecurity. The Hassan were thus seen as legitimate targets for jihad, given that they were seen as failing to oblige their obligations under Islam, even though they remained nominally Muslim.^[6]

Tensions between the Hassan and the Zawaya had also been exacerbated by an economic crisis; the two groups had previously complemented each other, with the Hassan being largely nomadic, whilst the Zawaya were agriculturalists along the Senegal. The French had established a trading post on the Atlantic at Saint-Louis in 1659, and this was in turn pulling the trade along the Senegal towards the Atlantic, disrupting the traditional trade along the Senegal. In particular the monopoly of Saint-Louis was depriving Moors of the slave labour they had relied on for centuries as well as the cereals from the agriculturalists along the Senegal.^[7] The nomadic desert groups north of the Senegal were heavily reliant on these cereals for survival. Berber society was then caught between the southern movement of the Hassan Arabs and the loss of trade due to Saint-Louis.^[7][2]

Among the Wolof and Fula states of the Senegal river valley, the Atlantic slave trade had created a profound crisis. The rulers of the Denianke kingdom, Waalo, Jolof and Cayor were all complicit in the ongoing manhunts and economic and social dislocations. A class of Muslim scholars called the Torodbe^[a] seem to have originated in Futa Toro, later spreading throughout the Fulbe territories. Two of the Torodbe clans in Futa Toro claimed to be descended from a seventh century relative of one of the companions of Muhammad who was among a group of invaders of Futa Toro. The Torodbe may well have already been a distinct group when the Denianke conquered Futa Toro in the early 1500s.^[9] The Torodbe clerical clans supported Nasr against the aristocracy.^[10]

A Zawaya scholar, born as Ashfaga but also known as Awbek, began to gain prominence amongst the Zawaya, eventually being known by just his title: Nasr ad-Din. Nasr had begun his preaching by calling for repentance, but as his movement grew amongst his tribe, the Banu Dayman, and amongst wider Zawaya society, Nasr began calling for the formation of an Islamic state. The state that Nasr advocated would be above tribal and ethnic tensions and would resemble the ideal society of the early Caliphs. Nasr went by numerous self-appointed titles, such as Sayyiduna (our master), Imamund (our Imam), and Mushi al-Din (he who spreads the faith), before finally settling on Nasir al-Din (protector of the faith). Nasr demanded the loyalty of all of the Zawaya, forcing every Zawaya leader to swear allegiance to him. His government was composed of himself, a Vizier, and 4 Qadi's, and tasked itself with enforcing order in the southern Sudan, known as Qibla. Nasr set himself the goals of fighting those who he believed had neglected Islam and oppressed Muslims, uniting the various groups of the region in a single state, and creating a new and divinely guided order.^[11]

Nasr's movement began as a movement for Islamic reform and renewal. He sent emissaries and preachers to the Senegambian royal courts to demand they more closely follow the tenets of Sharia law, restrict themselves to four wives, and stop pillaging and enslaving their own subjects. These entreaties, sent to rulers who alreadt identified as Muslims, were ignored, and preaching turned to violent conquest.^[12]: 326

By focusing on the states south of the Senegal river Nasr avoided an early confrontation with the powerful Hassan and also gained control of the entrepôts for the gum trade along the Senegal. French river trade had grown massively since the beginning of the century, so control of the entrepôts strengthened Nasr financially while offsetting Hassaniya control the ports on the Saharan coast.^[11]

With the promise to end endemic raiding and the large-scale export of slaves (though not slavery itself), the movement became a revolution, with local Muslims and the peasantry flocking to al-Din's banner.^[5] In Futa Tooro the population rose massively against the rule of the Denianke satigis, and the marabouts, led by Ennahouy Abdilby, quickly gained control.^[12]: 326 Strengthened with Torodbe recruits, Nasr's army overwhelmed and killed the brak of Waalo, Fara Kumba Mbodj, replacing him with a puppet, Yerim Kode, who took the title of buur jallit, meaning 'master of prayer.' Al Fadel ibn Abu Yadel led the invasion of the Kingdom of Jolof, where a man named Suranko was, according to legend, miraculously cured of blindness and then enthroned as ruler.^[12]: 327 In Cayor, Yacine Bubu, the former lingeer, allied with Ndiaye Sall and the marabout party to overthrow and kill the reigning damel. When the successor, chosen by Yacine Bubu, was in turn caught drinking alcohol and killed by the clerics, she and her faction within the ruling class looked to the king of Saloum for armed support against the marabouts.^{[13][12]: 328}

Nasr then turned his attention to strengthening the rule of his Islamic state, and imposed the zakat on the tributary tribes north of the Senegal river. One of these tributary tribes, the Bubba, called on Hadi, the Emir of Trarza, to help him resist Nasr ad-Din. Tradition maintains that the war between Nasr ad-Din and Trarza broke out as a result of the Bubba's call for help from Trarza, resulting in the war being called Shurbubba, or "the war of Bubba."^[11]

The Hassan were united in their opposition to Nasr.^[11] Most of the burden of fighting fell to the Emirate of Trarza, although the Emirate of Brakna sent Trarza reinforcements and helped immobilise Zawaya in their own regions to prevent them from joining the forces of Nasr. Most Zawaya of the Southern Sahara sided with Nasr, although some remained neutral, and others supported the Hassan, with a Zawaya scholar from Shinqit issuing a fatwa against Nasr, stating that he was not a Caliph and had no right to impose the zakat. This fatwa led to Hãdi, the Trarza chief, sending troops to seize animals that had already been sent as zakat.^[14]

The ensuing conflict saw the forces of Nasr and those of Hãdi clash in three battles; the first near the port of Portendick and the second near the salt mines of Awlil positioned just north of the mouth of the Senegal river. The Zawaya were victorious in all three of the battles, but Nasr was killed in the final battle in August 1674 along with many of his closest followers.^[14]

Following Nasr's death the Zawaya elected al-Faqih al-Amin. al-Amin had been born Sidi al-Fadil, and was descended from Zawaya employed by the Hassan chiefs. It was therefore hoped that al-Amin would be able to bring the Hassan to terms, who having been beaten in three battles, were ready to negotiate. An agreement was reached between the Hassan and the Zawaya whereby the Hassan would recognise the spiritual authority of the Zawaya Imam, and in return the Imam would give up all political claims, including his ability to levy zakat. However the majority of the Zawaya, who still followed the militarism of Nasr ad-Din, were opposed to any compromising with the Hassan, and deposed al-Amin. The Zawaya elected Qadi Uthman as his replacement. Uthman had previously served as Nasr al-Din's Vizier and had been one of his closest companions.^[14]

Uthman revived the policy of militarism and non-negotiation with the Hassan. He also reintroduced the zakat, which he demanded from weaker tribes and factions. These weaker groups resisted, joining together and seeking the support of Hadi. Hadi's forces then proceeded to wipe out the Zawaya's tax collecting expedition. Uthman was in turn killed fighting the Wolof, and was succeeded by a string of 3 Imams including Munir ad-Din, Nasir ad-Din's brother. The Imamate was eventually defeated by the combined forces of the Hassan and the rebelling tribes.^[14]

In Senegal the marabout movement had brought practically all commerce at Saint-Louis to a standstill. As the Zawaya grip loosened, the French found opportunities to militarily reinforce the deposed monarchies. With their support Yerim Kode betrayed the Muslims, and soon Jolof, Cayor, and Futa Toro were also back in the hands of their former rulers.^[15]

Both the sultan of Morocco and French trading post at Saint-Louis became involved in the war. According to historian Oumar Kane, the war allowed the king of Morocco to support the Hassan tribes against Zawaya forces. The relation went both ways, with Hadi, emir of Trarza, requesting for Moroccan soldiers to defeat his rivals.^[16] On the French side, merchants at Saint-Louis sought the continued flow of goods on the Senegal River. The areas which fought under Nasr's banner turned the region from a collection of small states to one united under an energetic figure.^[17] Senegalese historian Boubacar Barry also argues that competition with the Dutch trading post contributed to the anxiety of French merchants. Thus, the French continued trade with Nasr during 1673 while waiting for a chance to shatter his movement.^[18]

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As a result of their absolute defeat the Zawaya relinquished all claims to political or military authority and paid tribute to the Hassan for their protection.^[14] Hassani warriors were given the right to drink the milk from Zawaya herds and access to a third of the water from Zawaya wells. Zawaya also had to accommodate passing Hassani for three days. The Zawaya were also broken up as a group amongst the Hassani, with each Hassani group having its own Zawaya. In general however the conditions endured by the Zawaya differed little from those experienced before the war. Although defeated, the war had the result of adding militancy to the Zawaya religious teaching, which in turn spread to neighbouring countries in the Sudan.^[19]

The war ended in defeat for the Berber tribes, and they were from that point on forced to surrender their arms and submit to the warrior Arab tribes, to whom they paid the horma tributary tax. They would remain in roles as either exploited semi-sedentary agriculturalists and fishermen (znaga tribes), or, higher up on the social ladder, as religious (marabout or zawiya) tribes. This division between Hassane Arab warriors and Berber marabouts, plus the subordinate znaga, existed in Mauritania up until the French colonization, when France imposed itself militarily on all tribes, and so broke the power of the Hassane. Still, the traditional roles of the tribes remain important socially in these areas.^[20]

Even more important was that the Arab victory brought about widespread cultural and linguistic arabization, with Berber tribes surrendering their Tamazight and other Berber tongues to the Arabic language, in the form of the Hassaniya dialect of the Beni Hassan. It is still spoken as the main language in Moorish Mauritania and Western Sahara, as well as in parts of Morocco and Algeria.

Following the death of Nasr, support in the form of guns and soldiers would be given to Senegalese nobles who had lost power in the wake of the jihad. Sieur De Muchins, from the French trading post of Saint-Louis, supplied Waalo forces loyal to Brak (king) Yeerim Koodé from May 1674 onwards. Following his restoration of power in Waalo, Koodé would wage war against Marabout forces throughout 1675 and 1676. This support was given in order to open trade routes on the Senegal River which had been disrupted by the Jihad.^[21]

With their victory the Trarza and Brakna Moors became active and permanent fixtures of the Senegambian political mix, exerting constant military pressure on their neighbors to the south and dominating the lucrative gum trade.^[22][15] With the traditional Wolof and Fula aristocracy re-entrenched, the slave trade boomed and wars and raiding between the kingdoms became endemic. The lower classes bore the brunt of both the attacks from Mauritania and the slave raids, and increasingly turned to Islam as a potential political counterweight to the established regimes.^[8][23]

In the wake of their defeat, some Torodbe migrated south to found the state of Bundu and others continued on to the Futa Jallon.^[24][23] The Marabout war inspired an increasingly militant tone of Islamic preaching and created links between Berber and Torodbe groups, both of which helped set in motion and invigorate internal conflicts that would eventually lead to the Fula jihads.^[19][15]

• Mauritania
• Moors and Sahrawi
• Morocco
• Western Sahara
• Waalo
• Fula jihads
• Successors of the Jolof Empire

• Barry, Boubacar (1998). Senegambia and the Atlantic slave trade. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
• Barry, Boubacar (2017). The Kingdom of Waalo: Senegal Before the Conquest. New York: Diasporic Africa Press. ISBN 9780966020113.
• Fage, J.D.; Gray, Richard; Oliver, Roland Anthony (2003). The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20413-5.
• Gomez, Michael A. (2002-07-04). Pragmatism in the Age of Jihad: The Precolonial State of Bundu. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52847-4. Retrieved 2013-02-13.
• Gray, Richard (1975-09-18). The Cambridge History of Africa. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-20413-2. Retrieved 2013-02-10.
• Klein, Martin A. (2005). "Futa-Tooro: Early Nineteenth Century". Encyclopedia of African History. Vol. 1. Fitzroy Dearborn. p. 541. ISBN 978-1-57958-245-6. Retrieved 13 February 2013.
• "Overview of Fuuta Tooro". Jamtan. Retrieved 2013-02-17.
• Kane, Oumar (2004). La première hégémonie peule. Dakar: Karthala.