古英语 - 维基百科,自由的百科全书
古英語 | |
---|---|
Ænglisc、Anglisc、Englisc | |
![]() 《贝奥武夫》首页,图中文字为“ofer hron rade”,意为“鲸路(海)之上”。此为古英语表达形式之一,称比喻复合辞。 | |
区域 | 今英格兰(除西南端和西北端),苏格兰南部和东部、威尔士东部边缘。 |
年代 | 13世纪前发展为中古英语 |
語系 | |
方言 | |
文字 | 卢恩字母、后拉丁字母(古英语字母)。 |
語言代碼 | |
ISO 639-2 | ang |
ISO 639-3 | ang |
ISO 639-6 | ango |
Glottolog | olde1238 [1] |
古英语(古英語:Ænglisc,英語:Old English)或盎格魯-撒克遜語(英語:Anglo-Saxon)是指从449年到1066年间源於西北歐的日耳曼部落(盎格鲁-撒克逊人)入侵大不列颠岛并在现今英格蘭和蘇格蘭低地東南部定居后所说的中世纪早期英语,屬於西日耳曼語中的一种北海日耳曼语方言,和古弗里西语同属盎格鲁-弗里斯兰语组,并与古撒克遜語有密切關係,在诺曼人征服后受诺曼语(屬罗曼语族)影响演化为中古英语。
古英語虽然曾因盎格鲁-撒克逊英格兰的基督教化而受到少许拉丁语的影响,但和近代英语与现代英语无论在读音、拼写、词汇和文法上都很不一样,基本上无法互通;而因为丹麦法区历史,古英语受维京人的古诺斯语(北日耳曼语)影响更大,文法反而和德语及冰島語比较相近,形态变化很复杂。
文字字母
[编辑]字母 | IPA 轉述 |
---|---|
a | /ɑ/, /ɑː/ |
ā | /ɑː/ |
æ | /æ/, /æː/ |
ǣ | /æː/ |
b | /b/ |
[v] ( /f/ 的一個異音) | |
c | /k/ |
/tʃ/ | |
cg | /ddʒ/ (其發音為 /jj/ 的初期形式) |
/ɡɡ/ (偶爾) | |
d | /d/ |
ð | /θ/, 包括其異音 [ð] |
e | /e/, /eː/ |
ę | |
ē | /eː/ |
ea | /æɑ/, /æːɑ/ |
ēa | /æːɑ/ |
eo | /eo/, /eːo/ |
ēo | /eːo/ |
f | /f/,包括其異音 /v/ (同見 b). |
g | /ɡ/,包括其異音 /ɣ/;或 /j/,包括其異音/dʒ/,後來變為 ⟨n⟩ |
h | /h/,包括其異音/ç/, /x/ |
i | /i/, /iː/ |
ī | /iː/ |
ie | /iy/, /iːy/ |
/e/, /eː/ | |
īe | /iːy/ |
io | /iu/, /iːu/ |
k | /k/ |
l | /l/ |
m | /m/ |
n | /n/,包括其異音 /ŋ/ (以前為 /k/, /g/). |
o | /o/, /oː/ |
ō | /oː/ |
oe | /ø/, /øː/ (部分地區方言含有其音). |
ōe | /øː/ |
p | /p/ |
qu | /kw/ |
r | /r/ |
s | /s/包括其異音 /z/. |
sc | /ʃ/,偶爾也/sk/. |
t | /t/ |
th | /θ/ ,最早寫為þ (同見 þ). |
þ | /θ/,包括其異音/ð/ |
u | /u/,/uː/ 有時也用 /w/表示 (可見於下方的ƿ). |
uu | 有時使用 /w/ (可見於下方的ƿ). |
ū | 現代版本, 用 /uː/ 以區別於 /u/ |
w | /w/ |
ƿ | /w/ |
x | /ks/ (或[xs ~ çs] 存在不確定) |
y | /y/ 或 /yː/ |
ȳ | /yː/ |
z | /ts/ |
該個語言字母共有49個。
另外,雙輔音在此階段屬於萌發期,雙輔音 ⟨ðð⟩或⟨þþ⟩、 ⟨ff⟩ 以及 ⟨ss⟩ 在古英語中不能被發音。[2]
代表時期
[编辑]古英語可以分為:
史前古英語(450年-650年),在這段時期,因為缺乏相關文獻,古英語只能構擬出來,是當時盎格魯人、撒克遜人和朱特人在英格蘭地區的語言。
早期古英語(650年-900年),在這段時期,開始出現最古老的英語文獻。
後期古英語(900年-1066年),古英語的最後階段,隨着诺曼征服英格兰,過渡至中古英語。
音系
[编辑]古英語的音位表重構如下:
雙唇音 | 唇齒音 | 齒音 | 齒齦音 | 齦後音 | 硬腭音 | 軟腭音 | 聲門音 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
鼻音 | m | n | (ŋ) | |||||
塞音 | p b | t d | k ɡ | |||||
塞擦音 | tʃ (dʒ) | |||||||
擦音 | f (v) | θ (ð) | s (z) | ʃ | (ç) | (x) (ɣ) | h | |
近音 | r | j | w | |||||
邊音 | l |
括號中的是同位異音:
- [dʒ] 是 /j/ 的同位異音,出現於 /n/ 之後與長輔音中
- [ŋ] 是 /n/ 的同位異音,出現在 /k/ 和 /ɡ/ 之前
- [v, ð, z] 分別是 /f, θ, s/ 的同位異音,出現在元音或濁音之間
- [ç, x] 是 /h/ 的同位異音,分別出現於在前和後元音之后的音節韻尾
- [ɣ] 是 /ɡ/ 的同位異音,出現於元音之後和早期的詞首輔音叢中
單元音 | 短 | 長 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
前 | 後 | 前 | 後 | |
閉 | i y | u | iː yː | uː |
中 | e (ø) | o | eː (øː) | oː |
開 | æ | ɑ | æː | ɑː |
前中圓唇元音 /ø(ː)/ 出現在某些方言中,但在信料最好的后期西撒克遜方言中未出現。
雙元音 | 短(單音重) | 長(雙音重) |
---|---|---|
前音素閉 | iy[3] | iːy |
二音素中 | eo | eːo |
二音素開 | æɑ | æːɑ |
文法
[编辑]古英语的名词有数和格的分别。数分为单数、複數;格分为主格、所有格、第三格、受格。因此一个名词的變化數目,將數與格的變化相乘之後,共有8种变化形式。此外,名詞还分三個性別:阳性、中性和阴性。这些性的区分并不是以自然性别来判断的。例如妇女(wifmann)就是阳性的。
形容词的形态变化分为强、弱两种,它的数和格也共有8种变化。
文學
[编辑]古英語重要的文學作品包括《貝奧武夫》(Beowulf)、《盎格魯撒克遜編年史》(Anglo-Saxon Chronicle)等。
古英語文選
[编辑]下文節選自《貝奧武夫》,約於公元900年
行 | 原始 | 直譯 |
---|---|---|
[1] | Hwæt! wē Gār-Dena in geār-dagum, | What! We [of] Gar-Danes (lit. spear-danes) in yore-days, |
[2] | þeod-cyninga, þrym gefrunon, | [of] people-kings, trim (glory) afrained (have learned of by asking), |
[3] | hu ða æþelingas ellen fremedon. | how those athelings (princes) arm-strong feats framed (made/performed). |
[4] | Oft Scyld Scefing sceaþena þreatum, | Oft Scyld Scefing, [from] scathers (enemies) [in] threats (armed bands), |
[5] | monegum mægþum, meodosetla ofteah, | [from] many magths (clans, groups of sons, cf. Irish cognate Mac-), mead-settles took, |
[6] | egsode eorl. Syððan ærest wearð | awed earls (leaders of men). Sith (since) erst (first) [he] worth (came to be) |
[7] | feasceaft funden, he þæs frofre gebad, | fewshiped (helpless, in "fewship") founden, he [in a state of] loving care abode (lived), |
[8] | weox under wolcnum, weorðmyndum þah, | wex (waxed) under welkin (the clouds), [in] mind's-worth (honour) thrived, |
[9] | oðþæt him æghwylc þara ymbsittendra | oth that (until that) [to] him each [of] those [who were] by-sitting ("sitting" or dwelling roundabout) |
[10] | ofer hronrade hyran scolde, | over whale-road (kenning for sea) hear (obedience) should (owed), |
[11] | gomban gyldan. Þæt wæs god cyning! | gifts [to] yield. That was [a] good king! |
現代英語意譯:
- “Listen! We have heard of the glory of the Spear-Danes, of the kings of the people, in days of yore, [and] how those princes did deeds of glory. Often Scyld Scefing deprived armed bands of foes, many clans of mead-benches, [and] terrified warriors. Since he first was found helpless (he experienced comfort for that), he grew under the heavens, thrived with honours, until each of the nearby peoples over the sea were obliged to pay him tribute. That was a good king!”
下文節選自《主禱文》(The Lord's Prayer)
行 | 原始 | 直譯 |
---|---|---|
[1] | Fæder ūre þū þe eart on heofonum, | Father of ours, thou who art in heavens, |
[2] | Sī þīn nama ġehālgod. | Be thy name hallowed. |
[3] | Tōbecume þīn rīċe, | Come thy riche (kingdom), |
[4] | ġewurþe þīn willa, on eorðan swā swā on heofonum. | Worth (manifest) thy will, on earth as also in heaven. |
[5] | Ūre ġedæġhwāmlīcan hlāf syle ūs tō dæġ, | Our daily loaf do sell (give) to us today, |
[6] | and forġyf ūs ūre gyltas, swā swā wē forġyfað ūrum gyltendum. | And forgive us our guilts as also we forgive our guilters [4] |
[7] | And ne ġelǣd þū ūs on costnunge, ac ālȳs ūs of yfele. | And do not lead thou us into temptation, but alese (release/deliver) us of (from) evil. |
[8] | Sōþlīċe. | Soothly. |
下文節選自《Charter of Cnut》
原始 | 直譯 |
---|---|
¶ Cnut cyning gret his arcebiscopas and his leod-biscopas and Þurcyl eorl and ealle his eorlas and ealne his þeodscype, twelfhynde and twyhynde, gehadode and læwede, on Englalande freondlice. | ¶ Cnut, king, greets his archbishops and his lede'(people's)'-bishops and Thorkell, earl, and all his earls and all his peopleship, greater (having a 1200 shilling weregild) and lesser (200 shilling weregild), hooded(ordained to priesthood) and lewd(lay), in England friendly. |
And ic cyðe eow, þæt ic wylle beon hold hlaford and unswicende to godes gerihtum and to rihtre woroldlage. | And I kithe(make known/couth to) you, that I will be [a] hold(civilised) lord and unswiking(uncheating) to God's rights(laws) and to [the] rights(laws) worldly. |
¶ Ic nam me to gemynde þa gewritu and þa word, þe se arcebiscop Lyfing me fram þam papan brohte of Rome, þæt ic scolde æghwær godes lof upp aræran and unriht alecgan and full frið wyrcean be ðære mihte, þe me god syllan wolde. | ¶ I nam(took) me to mind the writs and the word that the Archbishop Lyfing me from the Pope brought of Rome, that I should ayewhere(everywhere) God's love(praise) uprear(promote), and unright(outlaw) lies, and full frith(peace) work(bring about) by the might that me God would(wished) [to] sell'(give). |
¶ Nu ne wandode ic na minum sceattum, þa hwile þe eow unfrið on handa stod: nu ic mid godes fultume þæt totwæmde mid minum scattum. | ¶ Now, ne went(withdrew/changed) I not my shot(financial contribution, cf. Norse cognate in scot-free) the while that you stood(endured) unfrith(turmoil) on-hand: now I, mid(with) God's support, that [unfrith] totwemed(separated/dispelled) mid(with) my shot(financial contribution). |
Þa cydde man me, þæt us mara hearm to fundode, þonne us wel licode: and þa for ic me sylf mid þam mannum þe me mid foron into Denmearcon, þe eow mæst hearm of com: and þæt hæbbe mid godes fultume forene forfangen, þæt eow næfre heonon forð þanon nan unfrið to ne cymð, þa hwile þe ge me rihtlice healdað and min lif byð. | Tho(then) [a] man kithed(made known/couth to) me that us more harm had found(come upon) than us well liked(equalled): and tho(then) fore(travelled) I, meself, mid(with) those men that mid(with) me fore(travelled), into Denmark that [to] you most harm came of(from): and that[harm] have [I], mid(with) God's support, afore(previously) forefangen(forestalled) that to you never henceforth thence none unfrith(breach of peace) ne come the while that ye me rightly hold(behold as king) and my life beeth. |
参看
[编辑]引用
[编辑]- ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian (编). Old English. Glottolog 2.7. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. 2016.
- ^ Old English. Wikipedia. 2017-06-25 [2017-06-25]. (原始内容存档于2022-01-23) (英语).
- ^ 無法確定拼作ie/īe的雙元音對究竟是[i(ː)y]還是[i(ː)e]. 該構擬基於許多方言併之入/y(ː)/.
- ^ Lit. a participle: "guilting" or "[a person who is] sinning"; cf. Latin cognate -ant/-ent.
前罗马铁器时代 前500年–前100年 | 罗马铁器时代早期 前100年–100年 | 罗马铁器时代晚期 100年–300年 | 迁徙时期 300年–600年 | 中世纪前期 600年–1100年 | 中世纪 1100–1350年 | 中世纪后期[a] 1350年–1500年 | 近代早期 1500年–1700年 | 现代 1700年至今 | |
原始日耳曼语 | 西日耳曼语 | 厄尔米诺内语 (易北河日耳曼语) | 原始高地德语 | 古高地德语、 伦巴底语[b] | 中古高地德語 | 早期现代高地德语 | 高地德语各变种 | ||
标准德语 | |||||||||
伊斯特沃内语 (威悉-莱茵日耳曼语) | 原始法兰克语 | 古法兰克语 | 古中部德语 | 中古中部德语 | 早期现代中部德语 | ||||
中部德语各变种 | |||||||||
古低地法兰克语 (古荷兰语) | 早期林堡语 中古荷兰语 | 晚期林堡语 中古荷兰语 | 早期林堡语 | 林堡语 | |||||
早期 中古荷兰语 | 晚期 中古荷兰语 | 早期 现代荷兰语 | 荷兰语各变种 | ||||||
南非语 | |||||||||
因格沃内语 (北海日耳曼语) | 原始撒克逊语 (东南因格沃内语) | 古撒克逊语 | 中古低地德语 | 低地德语各变种 | |||||
盎格鲁-弗里西语 (西北因格沃内语) | 原始弗里西语 | 古弗里西语 | 中古弗里西语 | 弗里西语各变种 | |||||
原始英语 | 古英语 (盎格鲁-撒克逊) | 早期 中古英语 | 晚期 中古英语 | 近代英语 | 英语各变种 | ||||
早期苏格兰语[c] | 中古苏格兰语 | 苏格兰语各变种 | |||||||
北日耳曼语 | 原始诺尔斯语 | 卢恩 古西诺尔斯语 | 古冰岛语 | 晚期 古冰岛语 | 冰岛语 | ||||
古挪威语[d] | 古法罗语 | 法罗语 | |||||||
古诺恩语 | 诺恩语 | 灭绝[e] | |||||||
卢恩 古东诺尔斯语 | 中古挪威语 | 挪威语 | |||||||
早期 古丹麦语 | 晚期 古丹麦语 | 丹麦语 | |||||||
早期 古瑞典语 | 晚期 古瑞典语 | 瑞典語 | |||||||
达拉纳方言 | |||||||||
卢恩 古哥得兰语 | 早期 古哥得兰语 | 晚期 古哥得兰语 | 哥得兰语[f] | ||||||
东日耳曼语 | 哥特语 | (未证实哥特语方言) | 克里米亚哥特语 | 灭绝 | |||||
汪达尔语 | 灭绝 | ||||||||
勃艮第语 | 灭绝 | ||||||||
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